Biases Including Confounding and Effect Size Modification in Clinical Studies and Their Mitigations

Main Article Content

Sada Nand Dwivedi

Abstract

An association analysis is an integral part of almost every clinical study. To determine the existing relationship of an exposure (e.g., smoking; treatment) with its expected respective outcome (e.g., coronary heart disease (CHD); improvement) accurately, one has to ensure the quality of data. Regardless of the types of association measures depending on various study designs (to be discussed separately), the association/relationship of exposure with an outcome may often get distorted due to the presence of various biases, including confounding and effect size modifications in the collected data. In spite of following each of the major research methodology steps required under a clinical study, to ensure the quality of data, one needs to minimize/nullify each of the numerous probable biases, including confounding and effect size modifications in the data. Hence, the focus of the present write-up is to briefly describe these biases so that researchers can be aware and take care of them in their clinical study.

Article Details

How to Cite
Dwivedi, S. N. (2024). Biases Including Confounding and Effect Size Modification in Clinical Studies and Their Mitigations. Central India Journal of Medical Research, 3(02), 6–12. https://doi.org/10.58999/cijmr.v3i02.189
Section
CME

References

Last John M (2001). A dictionary of epidemiology. 4th Edition. A handbook sponsored by the International Epidemiological Association.

Murphy, K. R., & Constans, J. I. (1987). Behavioral anchors as a source of bias in rating. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(4), 573–577.

Piotrowski, M. J., Barnes-Farrell, J. L., & Esrig, F. H. (1989). Behaviorally anchored bias: A replication and extension of Murphy and Constans. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(5), 823–826.

Sundaram KR, Dwivedi SN, Sreenivas V. Medical Statistics: Principles and Methods. Wolters and Kluwer (Health). New Delhi. 2015 (Second Edition).

Dwivedi SN. Understanding of scales of measurements and its consideration in clinical research. Central India Journal of Medical Research. 2023; 2(1):13-16.

Dwivedi SN. What are the Major Sampling Methods to Obtain a Representative Sample for a Clinical Study?. Central India Journal of Medical Research, 2024; 3(1): 6–11.

Aschengrau A, Seage GR (2020). Essentials of Epidemiology in Public Health, 4th Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning, Burlington, USA.

Iglesias ML, Schmidt A, Ghuzlan AA, Lacroix L, Vathaire F, Chevillard S, Schlumberger M. Radiation exposure and thyroid cancer: a review. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2017 Mar-Apr;61(2):180-187.

Fox AJ, White GC. Bladder cancer in rubber workers. Do screening and doctors' awareness distort the statistics? Lancet. 1976 May 8;1(7967):1009-11.

Dwivedi SN. How to deal with sample size exploration and its reporting in clinical research? Central India Journal of Medical Research. 2022; 1(3):2-6.

Dwivedi SN. What are the major research methodology steps under a clinical study? Central India Journal of Medical Research. 2023; 2(2):4-9